Siglo XIX (II)
(1800-1850)
Revolución Norteamericana y una nueva nación
Es difícil imaginar como una nación integrada apenas por 13 pequeños centros coloniales hubiera organizado su gobierno en torno de principios democráticos en un mundo regido por la aristocracia. Geroge Washington fue elegido primer presidente y a partir de su gobierno se echaron las bases de los partidos políticos que, más tarde, en elecciones libres, eligieron presidente a Thomas Jefferson. Fue a principios de este siglo que EE.UU. se enfrento a la primera gran guerra contra los ingleses. La victoria de los americanos estimuló su aplomo y seguridad en sus actos. La doctrina Monroe “América para los americanos” subrayo la inflexible actitud que asumiría desde ese momento en más respecto de que no autorizaría ninguna forma de colonización en la Américas por parte de ningún gobierno europeo.
Revolución Francesa
Si América había podido ser transformada, ¿por qué no Francia? Los revolucionarios organizaron un nuevo gobierno en París y abolieron todos los privilegios feudales en toda Francia. Luis XVI intentó escapar de Francia con toda su familia pero fue traido a París donde fue guillotinado. En 1799 aparece en escena Napoleón Bonaparte que se hizo con el poder con un golpe de estado, el XVIII Brumario. En pocos años conquistó la mayor parte de Europa Occidental pero sucumbió en un intento de apoderarse de Rusia en 1812. Murió en Santa Helena en 1821. La Revolución Francesa fue una avanzada contra las formas aristocráticas de gobierno por la imposición de sistemas electorales abiertos. Batalla de Waterloo. Las Guerras Napoleónicas terminaron con la batalla de Waterloo en junio de 1815, una de las más importantes de la historia. El Duque de Wellington, mesurado en sus comentarios según contemplaba el campo de batalla donde los aliados bajo su mando había terminado con Napoleón expresó: ”Nada, excepto una batalla perdida puede ser las mitad de melancólica que una batalla ganada”
Colonización Europea de Asia y África (ver Fines del siglo XVIII)
Colonización de Hispanoamérica (ver Fines del siglo XVIII)
Las facciones en EE.UU. y la Guerra Civil
Los primeros años del siglo XIX los americanos generalmente ignoraron el tema. El Norte abolió la esclavitud; el Sur la mantuvo, pero de hecho, no fue tema de debate. Las cosas cambiaron en 1819 cuando Missouri intentó entrar en la Unión como estado esclavista. El problema consistía en que se rompería la paridad en el Congreso respecto del tema. Se resolvió con el ingreso de Maine, que mantuvo el equilibrio entre unos y otros al establecerse que los estados al sur de una línea imaginaria que lo separaba el Norte sería esclavista, pero al norte de la línea se mantendría la abolición. Cuando Lincoln accede a la presidencia el Sur se secesiona del norte, dando comienzo la Guerra Civil. El triunfo del Norte destacó el espíritu de unidad del pueblo americano. El General Grant destacó entonces: “Se terminó la guerra. Los rebeldes vuelven a ser ciudadanos como nosotros.” Ocurrió algo curioso entonces. Hasta ese momento se decía “Los estados Unidos SON..” A partir del término de la guerra llamaron a su país “ Los estados Unidos ES…”
Primer ferrocarril
En 1830 comenzó a operar la primera vía férrea entre Liverpool y Manchester, en Inglaterra. El primer tren fabricado en EE.UU. comenzó a circular ese mismo año. Era administrado y operado por South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company. Poco después el sistema ferroviario se expandió por todo el mundo occidental. El Orient Express –París / Estambul- comenzó a circular en 1833.
Colonización Europea de Asia y África (ver Fines del siglo XVIII)
(1850-1875)
El Manifiesto Comunista
En 1848 Karl Marx y Friedrich Engels publicaron el Manifiesto Comunista. Exponían en él la doctrina socialista en la que se predecía mla lucha de clases, el derrocamiento del capitalism y una sociedad sin clases. Marx y Engels sostenían que la teroría del comunismo podia r esumirse en una sola frase: “La abolición de la propiedad privada”
Florence Nightingale
En 1854 Florence Nightingale, una enfermera británica, organizó un grupo de 38 enfermeras para servir en la Guerra de Crimea. Cuando llegó a Turquía puedo apreciar que eran más los muertos por enfermedades que por acción de las balas. Introdujo regulaciones de sanidad que en poco tiempo bajaron el promedio de muertes de una 45% a un 2%. Impuso una dieta sana para las tropas, y proveyó de ropa de cama limpia. Cuando retornó a Inglaterra montó una escuela de enfermería en 1860. Recibió la Orden al Mérito de Gran Bretaña y se la considera la fundadora de la enfermería moderna.
Charles Darwin
En 1859 Darwin publica el Origen de las especies, uno de los libros que más influencia ha tenido en el mundo. Más tarde publica “La ascendencia (descendencia) del hombre” en el que, complementando el anterior, sostiene que el hombre desciende formas de vida más primitivas, exponiendo así su teoría de la evolución. Su trabajo fue un desafío a la existencia de Dios, aunque en los ámbitos eclesiásticos se terminó reconociendo que la evolución ha sido el recurso que utilizó Dios para la creación del hombre.
Documento: Gettysburg Address
El presidente Abraham Lincoln pronunció este discurso -“Gettysburg Address”- el 19 de noviembre de 1863 en el Cementerio Nacional Pennsylvania:
Hace ocho décadas y siete años, nuestros padres hicieron nacer en este continente una nueva nación concebida en la libertad y consagrada al principio de que todas las personas son creadas iguales.
Ahora estamos empeñados en una gran guerra civil que pone a prueba si esta nación, o cualquier nación así concebida y así consagrada, puede perdurar en el tiempo. Estamos reunidos en un gran campo de batalla de esa guerra. Hemos venido a consagrar una porción de ese campo como último lugar de descanso para aquellos que dieron aquí sus vidas para que esta nación pudiera vivir. Es absolutamente correcto y apropiado que hagamos tal cosa.
Pero, en un sentido más amplio, nosotros no podemos dedicar, no podemos consagrar, no podemos santificar este terreno. Los valientes hombres, vivos y muertos, que lucharon aquí lo han consagrado ya muy por encima de nuestro pobre poder de añadir o restarle algo. El mundo apenas advertirá y no recordará por mucho tiempo lo que aquí decimos, pero nunca podrá olvidar lo que ellos hicieron aquí. Somos, más bien, nosotros, los vivos, los que debemos consagrarnos aquí a la tarea inconclusa que, aquellos que aquí lucharon, hicieron avanzar tanto y tan noblemente. Somos más bien los vivos los que debemos consagrarnos aquí a la gran tarea que aún resta ante nosotros: que, de estos muertos a los que honramos, tomemos una devoción incrementada a la causa por la que ellos dieron hasta la última medida completa de celo. Que resolvamos aquí, firmemente, que estos muertos no habrán dado su vida en vano. Que esta nación, Dios mediante, tendrá un nuevo nacimiento de libertad. Y que el gobierno del pueblo, por el pueblo y para el pueblo no desaparecerá de la Tierra.
Exposición Industrial de las Naciones
Gran Exposición, (en inglés Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations) nombre con que se conoce a la exposición Universal celebrada en 1851 en Londres. Concebida para mostrar el progreso de todo el mundo: maquinaria, productos manufacturados, esculturas, materias primas, todos los frutos de la creciente industria humana y de su ilimitada imaginación. Su apertura, el 1º de mayo, en Hyde Park, mostró todas estas maravillas en una maravilla más: The Crystal Palace (el Palacio de Cristal). El príncipe Alberto, esposo de la Reina Victoria, fue el principal promotor de esta exposición.
Esta exhibición engloba, simboliza e inicia la mirada del ser humano hacia el progreso y la modernidad; demostró en su tiempo, la supremacía de Inglaterra como el país más avanzado industrialmente. Los artículos ingleses, ocupaban más de la mitad del Crystal Palace, y reflejaban el sutil conflicto entre lo viejo y lo nuevo que tanto preocupó a la Europa del siglo XIX. Varios países mandaron sus productos, dentro de los cuales todavía se podía ver mucha mano artesanal. Las colonias inglesas, enviaron una gran variedad de productos que cautivaron la imaginación del público inglés. Además, es aquí donde se comenzó a ver la diferencia entre un emergente grupo que sería el Primer Mundo versus otros que después serían países en "vía de desarrollo" o el Tercer Mundo.
Como base de esta exposición, se encontraba la fe en el conocimiento científico La ciencia estaba produciendo nuevos y poderosos cambios en la manera de producir y de ver la vida, cambiando así mismo el pensamiento. El hombre quería tener el mayor conocimiento posible para poder controlar a la naturaleza. La ciencias como la física, la genética, la psicología, la antropología y la sociología, comenzaron a tener más adeptos para su estudio, propiciando cambios y descubrimientos en la aplicación de nuevos conocimientos científicos.
Nace Australia
La última partida de convictos ingleses fue desembarcada en Australia en 1868. Como castigo, desde 1787 Inglaterra venía desembarcando en la isla a convictos procesados por crímenes. Muchos de ellos habían sido procesados por crímenes menores, como el impago de deudas. Una vez radicados se convirtieron en la espina dorsal de sus colonias que crecieron hasta el millón de habitantes hacia 1850. En 1901 las colonias se transformaron en estados y pasaron a formar parte del Commonwealth de Australia
Japón surge como potencia mundial
En 1867 el último representante del emperador, Hitotsubashi, renunció autorizando así al emperador Mutsuhito a que asumiera la jefatura del gobierno. Durante los años siguientes los lores de los grandes clanes sometieron sus poderes al emperador. El nuevo gobierno fue eficiente y alentó la modernización de Japón.
En un momento en que los grandes poderes europeos luchaban por establecer su hegemonía sobre China , el Sudeste Asiático, India y Las Filipinas, Japón pudo eludir la colonización a la que se sometía a los demás, se transformó en un potencia mundial. De los británicos aprendieron cómo mejorar sus armada; de los holandeses nuevas técnicas para la construcción y de los americanos tomaron el sistema educativo.
El Imperio Ruso
A la muerte de Pedro el Grande el trono pasó a su segunda esposa; Catalina I. Durante su reinado Rusia amplió sus fronteras hasta Polonia y entró en contacto con la Europa Occidental. El fracaso de la invasión que realizó Napoleón a Rusia autorizó a este país a emerger como poder dominante en el continente.
En 1825 un grupo de reformistas rusos fue aplastado y en 1848/49 Rusia ayudó a Austria a derrotar una revuelta en Hungría. En 1861, el liberalismo obtuvo una gran victoria cuando Alejandro II liberó a los serbios. Mientras las grandes potencias europeas conseguían anexar colonias en África y Asia durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, Rusia orientó sus pasos hacia el este, a través del Cáucaso, entrando en Turkestán y el lejano Este.
(1875-1900)
Nueva Zelanda otorga el voto a las mujeres
Sobre el final del siglo XIX varios estados de los EE.UU. otorgaron a la mujer derecho al voto. Pero el primer país que otorgó ese derecho fue Nueva Zelanda que lo puso en vigencia en 1893. Fue ese mismo país el primero en establecer la seguridad social entro muchas otras reformas sociales en 1898.
EE.UU surge como potencia mundial
La flota de los 16 navíos de EE.UU.
La Gran Armada Blanca integrada por 16 navíos de guerra de ese color simbolizaron la aparición de EE.UU. como gran potencia mundial. La flota circunnavegó el mundo entre 1907 y 1909 coincidiendo con una estrategia que databa de varios años atrás cuando se planeó expandir los intereses americanos en el Mar Caribe, en el océano Pacífico y competir con las grandes potencias europeas en el acceso a los grandes mercados asiáticos, africanos y latinoamericanos. A finales del siglo EE.UU. había incorporado Puerto Rico, la zona del Canal de Panamá, Hawaii y las Filipinas.
El primer automóvil
El prototipo del primer automóvil propulsado a gasolina fue un vehículo alemán de tres ruedas construido en 1885 en la fábrica Benz, más tarde Mercedes Benz .
La cámara fotográfica de cajón
George Eastman inventa la primera cámara fotográfica de cajón. Su precio de venta era de 25 dólares, una suma considerable para la época. La cámara Kodak, que así se denominaba, venía cargada con un film de 100 fotos que, una vez agotado, debía ser llevado a la fábrica para su revelado e instalación de un nuevo rollo. Las novedad de esta cámara consistía en que era la primera en poder ser utilizada
Siglo XIX Time-Line (En inglés)
Ciencia (SIGA LOS COLORES)
Publicacionbes (novelas, cuentos, ensayos, ...)
Guerras, revoluciones, acuerdos...
Cultura: Músic, compositores; Pintores y obras pictóricas...
Napoleón y Francia
LATINOAMÉRICA
Periodismo
Fotografía
Viajes
Arquitectura , ingeniería, inventos, tecnología.
Descubrimientos arqueológicos
1800 - Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invents the first electric battery.
Madame de Stael publishes The Influence of Literature Upon
Society.
Society.
1800 - France regains Louisiana from Spain under the secret Treaty of
San Ildefonso.
San Ildefonso.
Napoleon defeats the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo.
1801 - Alexander I becomes emperor of Russia after the murder of his
father Paul I.
father Paul I.
Chemists Proust and Berthollet debate the constancy of chemical
composition.
composition.
Jefferson is selected as the 3rd U.S. president; Burr becomes
vice-president.
vice-president.
Nelson defeats the Danish fleet at Copenhagen.
Robert Fulton demonstrates his 3-man submarine the Nautilus.
The British defeat Napoleon's army of Egypt at Alexandria.
1802 - Britain returns the island of Minorca to Spain.
Napoleon is created First Consul for life.
The Treaty of Amiens brings a temporary halt to the French
Revolutionary Wars.
Revolutionary Wars.
1803 - English scientist John Dalton describes his atomic theory.
Matthew Flinders completes the first circumnavigation of Australia.
Ohio is inaugurated as the l7th state of the Union.
1804 - English engineer Richard Trevithick builds the first steam
locomotive.
locomotive.
Francis II assumes the title of emperor of Austria.
Napoleon crowns himself emperor of France.
Serbian nationalists revolt against the Turks.
1805 - American explorers Lewis and Clark reach the Pacific Ocean.
Britain, Austria, Russia and Sweden form a Third Coalition against
France.
France.
Nelson defeats the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, but is killed
during the action.
during the action.
The French defeat Austro-Russian forces at the Battle of
Austerlitz.
Austerlitz.
1806 - Napoleon begins the Continental System, closing European ports to
British vessels.
British vessels.
Napoleon forces the abdication of Francis II; the Holy Roman
Empire is dissolved.
Empire is dissolved.
Revolutionary leader Francisco de Miranda makes an abortive
invasion of Venezuela.
invasion of Venezuela.
William Murdock installs gas lighting in a Manchester cotton mill.
1807- Beethoven completes his Fifth Symphony and begins the Sixth
(Pastoral).
(Pastoral).
British chemist Humphry Davy discovers the elements potassium
and sodium.
and sodium.
German philosopher Hegel publishes The Phenomenology of the
Spirit.
Spirit.
Portugal refuses to observe the blockade against England
France invades Portugal.
Robert Fulton's steamship the Clermont makes its maiden voyage.
The slave trade is outlawed throughout the British Empire.
1808 - Francisco de Goya paints The Third of May, depicting the cruelty of
war.
war.
French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac isolates the element
boron.
boron.
John Jacob Astor founds the American Fur Company.
Napoleon appoints his brother Joseph as king of Spain.
1809 - Frenchman Nicolas Appert develops the first effective method for
canning food.
canning food.
John Stevens' steamboat the Phoenix makes the first ocean-going
voyage.
voyage.
Lamarck publishes his theories of evolution in Zoological
Philosophy.
Philosophy.
Napoleon annexes the Papal States and takes Pope Pius VII
prisoner.
prisoner.
1810 - A rebellion against Spain breaks out in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Mexican priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla leads a rebellion against
Spanish rule.
Spanish rule.
1811 - Bolivar and Miranda lead the Venezuelan congress in a declaration
of independence.
of independence.
Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro develops the concept known as
Avogadro's law.
Avogadro's law.
Jose Artigas raises a force to expel the Spanish from the Banda
Oriental (Uruguay).
Oriental (Uruguay).
The building of the National Road, the first U.S. federal highway,
begins in Maryland.
begins in Maryland.
1812 - Georges Cuvier develops his theory of catastrophism through the
study of fossils.
study of fossils.
Grimm's Fairy Tales are published in Germany.
Napoleon invades Russia with 450,000 men.
Napoleon's army retreats from Moscow; only 40,000 men reach
France.
France.
Spanish forces defeat Bolivar and Miranda in Venezuela; Miranda
is imprisoned.
is imprisoned.
Territorial and shipping disputes lead to the War of 1812 between
the U.S. and Britain.
the U.S. and Britain.
The first coal gas generating station is chartered in London to
provide gas lighting.
provide gas lighting.
Wellington defeats the French at the Battle of Salamanca in Spain.
1813 - English novelist Jane Austen publishes Pride and Prejudice.
1 Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Leipzig by the Sixth Coalition.
Rebel forces invade Venezuela and capture Caracas; Bolivar is
declared the Liberator.
declared the Liberator.
Wellington defeats the French in Spain at Vitoria and invades
southern France.
southern France.
1814 - Actor Edmund Kean makes his debut as Shylock in The Merchant of
Venice.
Venice.
Andrew Jackson annihilates the Creek Indians at the Battle of
Horseshoe Bend.
Horseshoe Bend.
Coalition armies invade France; Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to
the island of Elba.
the island of Elba.
French artist Ingres paints The Grand Odalisque.
George Stephenson constructs his first steam locomotive.
Pope Pius VII returns to Rome; the Jesuit order is reestablished.
1815 - Napoleon escapes from Elba and marches on Paris during the
Hundred Days.
Hundred Days.
Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo; he is exiled to the
island of Saint Elena
The Spanish army reconquers Venezuela; Bolivar flees to Jamaica.
island of Saint Elena
The Spanish army reconquers Venezuela; Bolivar flees to Jamaica.
The Spanish capture and execute the Mexican rebel leader Morelos
y Pavon.
y Pavon.
1816 - Gioacchino Rossini's opera The Barber of Seville is performed in
Rome.
Rome.
- The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (Argentina) declare
independence.
independence.
1817 - French physician Rene Laennec invents the stethoscope.
José de San Martin and Bernardo O'Higgins defeat the Spanish in
Chile.
Chile.
Sir Walter Scott writes the Scottish adventure novel Rob Roy.
1818 - Arthur Schopenhauer publishes The World as Will and
Representation.
Representation.
Bernardo O'Higgins becomes the supreme director of independent
Chile.
Chile.
Composer Franz Schubert becomes the music teacher to Count
Esterhazy's family.
Esterhazy's family.
English chemist Sir Humphry Davy invents the miner's safety lam
Mary Wollstonecroft Shelley publishes the horror novel
Frankenstein.
Frankenstein.
Thomas Love Peacock publishes his comic novel Nightmare Abbey.
1819 - Bolivar defeats the Spanish in Colombia at the Battle of Boyaca.
Lord Byron begins his satirical poem Don Juan.
Spain surrenders East and West Florida to the U.S. in the Adams-
Onis Treaty.
Onis Treaty.
The Prado Museum is inaugurated in Madrid.
The Savannah becomes the first steamship to cross the Atlantic.
1820 - English poet John Keats writes Ode To a Nightingale.
- English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley writes Prometheus Unbound.
- French poet Alphonse de Lamartine publishes Meditations
Poetiques.
Poetiques.
Juan Manuel de Rosas becomes the virtual dictator of Argentina.
The Missouri Compromise admits Missouri to the Union as a slave
state.
state.
Washington Irving publishes Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of
Sleepy Hollow.
Sleepy Hollow.
1821 - Bolivar forms Gran Colombia (Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela and
Panama).
Panama).
Brazil annexes the Banda Oriental (Uruguay).
Napoleon dies on Saint Helena.
Revolutionary general San Martin enters Lima and declares Peru
independent.
independent.
Revolutionary leader Iturbide declares Mexican independence
from Spain.
from Spain.
Simon Bolivar defeats the Spanish forces in Venezuela and
Ecuador.
Ecuador.
The Cherokee Indian Sequoya develops the Cherokee written
language.
language.
1822 - American surgeon William Beaumont begins his study of the gastric
process.
process.
Antonio José de Sucre defeats the Spanish in Ecuador at the Battle
of Pichincha.
of Pichincha.
Dom Pedro, son of Portuguese King John VI, declares Brazil
independent.
independent.
French scholar Jean Francois Champollion deciphers the Rosetta
Stone hieroglyphics.
Stone hieroglyphics.
1823 - Charles Babbage begins work on his difference engine, a precursor
of the computer.
of the computer.
Charles Macintosh patents the waterproof fabric used in
mackintosh raincoats.
mackintosh raincoats.
Ludwig van Beethoven completes his 9th Symphony.
The Monroe Doctrine warns Europe not to interfere in the
Americas.
Americas.
1824 - De Sucre defeats the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho, liberating
Peru.
Peru.
English poet Lord Byron travels to Greece to aid the patriots but
dies of a fever.
dies of a fever.
Jons Jakob Berzelius discovers the element silicon about this time.
Sadi Carnot lays the foundations for the second law of
thermodynamics.
thermodynamics.
The National Gallery is founded in London.
1825 - Nicholas I is made Emperor of Russia; the Decembrists revolt
breaks out.
breaks out.
Uruguayan leader Lavalleja precipitates a war between Brazil and
Argentina.
Argentina.
1826 - American engineer John Stevens builds the first U.S. steam
locomotive.
locomotive.
Andre Ampere publishes his Theory of Electrodynamic
Phenomenon.
Phenomenon.
Felix Mendelssohn composes A Midsummer Night's Dream at age
17.
17.
Ohm's law establishes the relationship of electrical voltage, current
and resistance.
and resistance.
1827 - English inventor John Walker introduces the first friction matches.
Ornithologist John James Audubon begins the publication of his
Birds of America.
Birds of America.
1828 - Composer Frederic Chopin begins concert tours at age 18.
Noah Webster publishes his American Dictionary of the English
Language.
Language.
Virtuoso violin player Niccolo Paganini performs in Vienna.
1829 - Louis Braille publishes his braille system of writing for the blind.
The convict-free British colony of Western Australia is founded.
The first U.S. encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, is begun.
1830 - British geologist Charles Lyell begins publishing his Principles of
Geology.
Geology.
Hector Berlioz composes his first major work the Symphonie
Fantastique.
Fantastique.
1831 - British naturalist Charles Darwin sails to South America aboard
M.S. Beagle.
M.S. Beagle.
Explorer James Clark Ross determines the position of the north
magnetic pole.
magnetic pole.
Michael Faraday demonstrates his theory of electromagnetic
induction.
induction.
Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin completes his masterpiece Eugene
Onegin.
Onegin.
1832 - George Sand (Aurore Dudevant) publishes her first novel Indiana.
The Democratic party is formally established as a national
organization.
organization.
1833 - Britain occupies the Falkland Islands.
1833 - Isabella II succeeds Ferdinand VII, King of Spain; the Carlist Wars begin.
Victor Hugo's novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame is published in
English.
English.
1834 - American inventor Jacob Perkins patents the first practical ice-
making machine.
making machine.
British politician Sir Robert Peel founds the Conservative Party.
The Carlist Wars resume in Spain.
1835 - Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen publishes Tales Told for
Children.
Children.
French politician Alexis de Tocqueville publishes Democracy in
America.
America.
1836 - American inventor Samuel Colt begins manufacturing the first
revolver.
revolver.
Bolivian president Santa Cruz invades Peru and forms the Peru-
Bolivian
Bolivian
Confederation.
Charles Dickens publishes his first popular work The Pickwick
Papers.
Papers.
Russian author Nikolai Gogol writes his play The Inspector
General.
General.
The Arc de Triomphe, the world's largest triumphal arch, is completed
in Paris.
in Paris.
1837 - British scientist Charles Wheatstone designs an electric telegraph
system.
system.
Louis Daguerre invents the daguerreotype method for taking
permanent photographs
permanent photographs
Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle publishes The French Revolution.
1838 - Charles Wilkes heads a U.S. Navy expedition to Antarctica.
French philosopher Auguste Comte inaugurates the science of
sociology.
sociology.
John Deere develops a steel-tipped plow capable of turning heavy
prairie soil.
prairie soil.
Samuel F.B. Morse develops the Morse code for electric telegraph
systems.
systems.
Scottish blacksmith Kirkpatrick Macmillan makes the first pedal-
driven bicycle.
driven bicycle.
1839 - American inventor Charles Goodyear develops the vulcanization of
rubber.
rubber.
The Opium Wars begin between Britain and China.
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden formulate the cell
theory.
theory.
1840 - French philosopher and anarchist Pierre Joseph Proudhon writes
What is Property.
What is Property.
Queen Victoria marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg.
The first adhesive postage stamp, the Penny Black, is issued in
London.
London.
1841 - Edgar Allan Poe writes an early detective story The Murders in the
Rue Morgue.
Rue Morgue.
1841 - Horace Greeley founds the New York Tribune newspaper.
1842 -China cedes Hong Kong to Britain.
China is defeated in the first Opium War
Chinese ports are opened to British trade.
Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti writes his opera Don
Pasquale.
Pasquale.
1843 - Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard publishes Either/Or.
1844 - Samuel F.B. Morse establishes the first U.S. telegraph link.
1845 - American author Margaret Fuller publishes Women in the
Nineteenth Century.
Nineteenth Century.
German composer Robert Schumann writes his Piano Concerto in
A minor.
A minor.
German scientist Alexander von Humboldt publishes the first volume of his
Kosmos.
1846 - Adolphe Sax patents the saxophone in Paris.
American dentist William Morton extracts a tooth using ether as an
anesthetic.
anesthetic.
German astronomer Johann Galle makes the first observation of
the planet Neptune.
the planet Neptune.
Henry Creswicke Rawlinson deciphers the Mesopotamian
cuneiform script.
cuneiform script.
The Smithsonian Institution is created by Congress.
1847 - Charlotte Bronte publishes Jane Eyre; Emily Bronte publishes
Wuthering Heights.
Wuthering Heights.
English novelist William Makepeace Thackeray begins Vanity Fair.
Honore de Balzac completes La Comedie humaine, a collection of
over 100 novels.
over 100 novels.
The American Medical Association is founded.
The U.S. post office begins using adhesive postage stamps.
1848 - American engineer James Bogardus begins using cast-iron for
building construction.
building construction.
1848 - French Barbizon artist Theodore Rousseau paints the Forest at
Fontainebleau.
Fontainebleau.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto.
The Revolutions of 1848 break out in Europe.
The first U.S. women's rights assembly meets at the Seneca Falls
Convention.
Convention.
1849 - Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman to obtain a medical
degree.
degree.
French physicist Armand Fizeau measures the velocity of light.
1850 - American author Nathaniel Hawthorne writes The Scarlet Letter.
English author Charles Dickens writes David Copperfield.
French realist artist Gustave Courbet paints The Stone Breakers.
Photographer Mathew Brady publishes The Gallery of Illustrious
Americans.
Americans.
1851 - A gold rush begins in Victoria, Australia; Victoria becomes a
separate colony.
separate colony.
American author Herman Melville publishes Moby-Dick.
Giuseppe Verdi's opera Rigoletto is produced in Venice.
Harriet Beecher Stowe begins publishing Uncle Tom's Cabin.
Henry Jarvis Raymond and George Jones found the New York
Times.
Times.
Jacob Fussell begins making ice cream in commercial quantities in
Baltimore.
Baltimore.
The U.S. yacht America defeats 17 British yachts in the first
America's Cup contest.
America's Cup contest.
1852 - Argentinean dictator Rosas is defeated by forces under Urquiza at
Monte Caseros.
Monte Caseros.
The Second Empire begins in France under Napoleon III.
1853 - A U.S. naval squadron under Matthew Perry enters Tokyo Bay to
negotiate a treaty.
negotiate a treaty.
Richard Wagner begins his cycle of four operas The Ring of The
Nibelung.
Nibelung.
Russia occupies the Turkish principalities of Moldavia and Walachia.
1854 - A commercial treaty is signed between the U.S. and Japan, ending
Japanese isolation.
Japanese isolation.
American writer and naturalist Henry David Thoreau publishes
Walden.
Walden.
Britain and France declare war on Russia, beginning the Crimean
War.
War.
The Charge of the Light Brigade is made by the British during the
Battle of Balaklava.
Battle of Balaklava.
1855 - British photographer Roger Fenton documents the Crimean War.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow publishes The Songs of Hiawatha.
Matthew Fontaine Maury publishes The Physical Geography of the
Sea.
Sea.
Nicholas I, Emperor of Russia dies; he is succeeded by his son
Alexander II.
Alexander II.
Robert Browning publishes his poetry collection Men and Women.
Scottish explorer David Livingstone discovers the Victoria Falls in
Africa.
Africa.
Walt Whitman publishes his first book of poetry, the Leaves of
Grass.
Grass.
1856 - English chemist William Perkin discovers synthetic dyes.
The Treaty of Paris ends the Crimean War.
The first Neanderthaler (prehistoric human) skeleton is discovered
in Germany.
in Germany.
1856 - Victor Hugo writes Les Miserables during his exile from France.
1857 - Elisha Graves Otis installs the first passenger elevator in a New York
City store.
City store.
French novelist Gustave Flaubert publishes Madame Bovary.
French poet Baudelaire publishes Flowers of Evil and is arrested for
immorality.
immorality.
The Indian Mutiny begins when Indian troops rebel against the British
in Meerut.
in Meerut.
The Oxford English Dictionary is begun in England.
1858 - British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace outlines his theories of
evolution.
evolution.
1858 - Cyrus W. Field lays the first transatlantic telegraph cable.
1858 - French photographer Nadar takes the first aerial photograph from
a balloon.
a balloon.
Jacques Offenbach's operetta Orpheus in the Underworld
premiers in Paris.
premiers in Paris.
1858 - James Renwick begins the design of Saint Patrick's Cathedral in New
York City.
York City.
The government of India is transferred from the East India
Company to the British crown.
Company to the British crown.
1859 - Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection.
Natural Selection.
Ferdinand de Lesseps begins building the Suez Canal in Egypt.
French inventor Ferdinand Carre develops a refrigeration system.
1860 - Abraham Lincoln is elected as the first Republican president of the
United States.
United States.
English novelist Wilkie Collins writes The Woman in White.
George Eliot (Mary Anne Evans) publishes The Mill on the Floss.
1860 - Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir patents the first internal-combustion
engine.
engine.
1861 - American locksmith Linus Yale Jr. patents the cylinder lock.
French artist Eugene Delacroix paints the Lion Hunt.
Italy is unified under Victor Emmanuel II.
Nicholas II abolishes serfdom in Russia.
The Confederate States of America declare their independence
from the U.S.
from the U.S.
The Confederates defeat the Union army in the First Battle of Bull
Run.
Run.
1862 - Bartolome Mitre unites Argentina and is elected president.
French actress Sarah Bernhardt makes her debut at the Comedie
Francaise.
Francaise.
French impressionist artist Edouard Manet paints Le Dejeuner sur
l'Herbe.
l'Herbe.
French physicist Jean Foucault successfully measures the speed of
light.
light.
French writer Victor Hugo completes his social novel Les
Miserables.
Miserables.
Richard J. Gatling invents the first practical machine gun.
Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev publishes Fathers and Sons.
English philosopher John Stuart Mill publishes Utilitarianism.
1863 - French impressionist artist Camille Pissarro exhibits at the Salon
des Refuses.
des Refuses.
Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation abolishes slavery in the
Confederate states.
Confederate states.
London's Metropolitan Railway becomes the first underground subway.
1864 - Paraguayan dictator Francisco Solano Lopez begins the War of the
Triple Alliance.
Triple Alliance.
The Colorado militia massacre Cheyenne Indians at Sand Creek.
Ulysses S. Grant is made general in chief of all the Union armies.
Confederate forces under Lee surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court
House.
House.
1865 - Count Leo Tolstoi begins his monumental Russian novel War and
Peace.
Peace.
English author Lewis Carroll writes Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland.
Wonderland.
Johnston surrenders the last Confederate army to Sherman, ending
the U.S. Civil War.
the U.S. Civil War.
Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre in
Washington D.C.
Washington D.C.
1865 - Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky publishes Crime and
Punishment.
Punishment.
1866 - British engineer Robert Whitehead invents the first self-propelled
torpedo.
torpedo.
Mendel publishes his genetic research in Experiments With Plant
Hybrids.
Hybrids.
The Ku Klux Klan is founded in the southern United States.
1867 - Karl Marx publishes the first volume of Das Kapital.
1868 - A military coup led by General Juan Prim deposes Queen Isabella II
of Spain.
of Spain.
A skeleton of Cro-Magnon man is discovered in southern France.
Christopher Sholes patents the first practical typewriter.
Johannes Brahms' A German Requiem is performed for the first
time.
time.
The Ten Years' War begins in Cuba against Spanish rule.
English author Matthew Arnold publishes Culture and Anarchy.
1869 - Grant is inaugurated as the 18th U.S. president; Colfax becomes
vice-president.
vice-president.
1869 - John Roebling designs the Brooklyn Bridge but dies after a construction
accident.
accident.
Pope Pius IX calls the First Vatican Council to discuss the dogma of
papal infallibility.
papal infallibility.
Russian composer Modest Mussorgsky begins work on his opera
Boris Gudunov.
Boris Gudunov.
The Suez Canal is opened in Egypt.
1870 - American industrialist John D. Rockefeller founds the Standard Oil
Company.
Company.
German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavates the ancient
city of Troy.
city of Troy.
1870 - Paraguayan dictator Solano Lopez dies, ending the War of the
Triple Alliance.
Triple Alliance.
Rome becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
The Franco-Prussian War begins over a diplomatic incident engineered
by Bismark.
by Bismark.
1871 - The German Empire is formally proclaimed at the Palace of
Versailles.
Versailles.
1872 - Monet paints Impression: Sunrise; the term impressionism is
derived from the title.
derived from the title.
The Challenger Expedition begins the first systematic oceanographic
survey.
survey.
The cities of Buda and Pest unite to form Budapest (the capital of
Hungary from 918).
Hungary from 918).
The first woman impressionist artist Berthe Morisot paints The
Cradle.
Cradle.
1873 - Englishman Maj. Walter Clopton Wingfield invents lawn tennis.
French novelist Jules Verne publishes Around the World in Eighty
Days.
Days.
1874 - English author Thomas Hardy publishes Far from the Madding
Crowd.
Crowd.
- French impressionist artist Pierre Auguste Renoir paints La Loge
(The Box).
(The Box).
- The first exhibition of impressionist paintings is held in Paris.
1875 - Georges Bizet's opera Carmen is performed in Paris.
The Bourbon monarchy is restored in Spain under Alfonso XII.
1876 - Alexander Graham Bell patents his invention of the telephone.
British philosopher Herbert Spencer begins publishing the Principles
of Sociology.
of Sociology.
Johann Strauss Jr. composes his waltz The Beautiful Blue Danube.
Queen Victoria assumes the title of Empress of India.
The Bayreuth musical festival opens with a performance of
Wagner's Ring cycle.
Wagner's Ring cycle.
The U.S. Centennial Exposition of 1876 is held in Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia.
Philadelphia.
1877 - Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli observes canali (channels)
on Mars.
on Mars.
Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake is performed by the Bolshoi Ballet in
Moscow.
Moscow.
Thomas Edison invents the phonograph.
1878 - Serbia, Montenegro and Romania are granted independence from
Turkey.
Turkey.
Turkey's provinces of Bosnia and Hercegovina are placed under
Austrian administration.
Austrian administration.
1879 - General Roca defeats the Patagonian Indians, opening the Pampas
for settlement.
for settlement.
Impressionist artist Edgar Degas paints Ballerina Posing for a
Photograph.
Photograph.
Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen writes A Doll's House.
Territorial disputes lead to the War of the Pacific between Chile and
Peru.
Peru.
Thomas Edison develops the first workable incandescent lamp (light
bulb).
bulb).
1880 - American impressionist artist Mary Cassatt exhibits A Woman in
Black at the Opera.
Black at the Opera.
France annexes the Pacific island of Tahiti.
French novelist Emile Zola writes Nana, a portrait of a prostitute.
German composer Jacques Offenbach writes the opera Tales of Hoffmann.
Gladstone succeeds Disraeli as British prime minister.
Russian composer Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky writes the 1812
Overture.
Overture.
1881 - Alexander II is assassinated by narodniki revolutionaries in Russia.
Ferdinand de Lesseps begins an abortive attempt to build the Panama
Canal.
Canal.
1882 - A Triple Alliance is established between Austria, Italy and
Germany.
Germany.
Edison's New York plant begins supplying 59 customers with electricity.
Impressionist artist Edouard Manet completes the Bar at the Folies-
Bergere.
Bergere.
The British take control of Egypt, suppressing uprisings against Tawfiq
Pasha.
Pasha.
1883 - German philosopher Frederich Wilhelm Nietzsche begins Thus
Spake Zarathustra.
Spake Zarathustra.
Russian scientist Tsiolkovsky proves that a rocket could work in the
vacuum of space.
vacuum of space.
The Brooklyn Bridge is completed in New York.
The Fabian Society is founded in London to spread socialist ideas.
The first skyscraper (10 stories) is built in Chicago by William LeBaron
Jenney.
Jenney.
1884 - American author Mark Twain publishes the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
Lewis E. Waterman invents the first fountain pen with an ink reservoir.
1885 - Boston Symphony Orchestra organizes its Promenade Concerts
(the Boston Pops).
(the Boston Pops).
- French chemist Louis Pasteur develops a vaccine for rabies.
Gottlieb Daimler develops the first motorcycle.
J. K. Stanley introduces his safety cycle, the basic model for the
modern bicycle.
modern bicycle.
1886 - Apache Indian chief Geronimo surrenders to General Nelson Miles.
1886 - French sculptor Auguste Rodin completes The Kiss.
The Statue of Liberty is unveiled in New York Harbor.
1887 - Arthur Conan Doyle publishes the first Sherlock Holmes story.
The Michelson-Morley experiment confirms the absence of ether.
1888 - A patent is issued to American inventor John H. Loud for the first ball-
point pen.
point pen.
American inventor George Eastman introduces the Kodak box
camera.
camera.
Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh paints Still Life With Sunflowers.
Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov writes Scheherazade.
The National Geographic Magazine is published for the first time.
1889 - Gustave Eiffel designs the Eiffel Tower for the Paris Exposition.
Pedro II emperor of Brazil is overthrown in a coup; Brazil is
declared a republic.
declared a republic.
1890 - American naval officer Alfred Mahan publishes The Influence of
Sea Power upon History.
Sea Power upon History.
American psychologist William James publishes The Principles of
Psychology.
Psychology.
Claude Debussy begins composing Suite Bergamasque, including
Clair de lune.
Clair de lune.
Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh commits suicide.
1891 - Anglo-Irish author Oscar Wilde publishes his only novel The Picture
of Dorian Gray.
of Dorian Gray.
Eugene Dubois discovers the first Homo erectus remains on Java in
Indonesia.
Indonesia.
1892 - French artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec paints At the Moulin
Rouge.
Rouge.
Impressionist artist Paul Cezanne completes the Card Players.
Writer and political revolutionary Jose Marti founds the Cuban
Revolutionary party.
Revolutionary party.
1893 - American artist Louis Comfort Tiffany begins producing Art
Nouveau glassware.
Nouveau glassware.
Victor Horta's Tassel House in Brussels initiates the Art Nouveau
architectural style.
architectural style.
1894 - English author Rudyard Kipling publishes The Jungle Book.
1894 - Percival Lowell builds an observatory to study the Martian canals.
1895 - Anglo-Irish playwright Oscar Wilde writes The Importance of Being
Earnest.
Earnest.
Louis and Auguste Lumiere show the first motion pictures to a
Paris cafe audience.
Paris cafe audience.
Russian revolutionary Vladimir Ilich Lenin is exiled to Siberia.
The Cuban War of Independence begins against Spain; Jose Marti
is killed in battle.
is killed in battle.
The first list of best-selling books is published by The Bookman
magazine.
magazine.
X rays are discovered by German physicist Wilhelm C. Roentgen.
1896 - A tsunami (tidal wave) kills 27,000 people in Japan.
Italian composer Giacomo Puccini writes the opera La Boheme.
The first modern Olympic Games are held at Athens in Greece; 13
countries compete.
countries compete.
1897 - British physician Havelock Ellis begins his Studies in the Psychology
of Sex.
of Sex.
French dramatist Edmond Rostand writes Cyrano de Bergerac.
French primitive artist Henri Rousseau paints The Sleeping Gypsy.
The first subway un the U.S. opens in Boston.
1898 - Anglo-Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw publishes Arms and
the Man.
the Man.
Commodore Dewey destroys the Spanish fleet in Manila harbor.
English author H. G. Wells publishes The War of the Worlds.
The Spanish fleet is destroyed off Cuba; Spain sues for peace.
The Spanish-American War begins with a declaration of war by
Congress.
Congress.
U.S. troops land on Cuba; Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders are in
action.
action.
William Randolph Hearst's yellow journalism inflames anti-Spanish
feelings.
feelings.
1899 - Journalist and future statesman Winston Churchill escapes from Boer
captivity.
captivity.
1900 - Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven invents the electrocardiograph.
Max Planck formulates the quantum theory in physics.
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of
Dreams.
Dreams.
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